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Pearls

A pearl is a hard, lustrous object produced within the soft tissue (mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or, more rarely, other animals such as fossil conulariids. Like a mollusk’s shell, a pearl consists primarily of calcium carbonate—mainly aragonite or a mix of aragonite and calcite—arranged in minute concentric crystalline layers.

Types and Formation

The most prized pearls form spontaneously in the wild and are known as natural pearls. These are rare and historically valuable. By contrast, cultured pearls, which make up the majority of pearls sold today, are farmed from pearl oysters or freshwater mussels. Imitation pearls, usually made from glass or plastic, are common in inexpensive jewelry.

Characteristics and Uses

Pearls of gem quality are typically nacreous and iridescent, similar to the inner shell of the mollusk. Although most mollusks can produce so-called calcareous concretions, many lack the luster or spherical form of gem-quality pearls and thus have little commercial value.

Pearls have long been valued as gemstones and metaphors for rarity and beauty. Historically they adorned clothing and have been ground for use in cosmetics, medicine, and paint.

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Beads

A bead is a small, decorative object with a hole for threading, made in a wide range of materials—including stone, bone, shell, glass, plastic, wood, and pearl—and in sizes from under 1 mm to over 1 cm.

Historical Significance

Beads are among the earliest forms of jewellery. A pair of beads made from Nassarius sea snail shells, dated to approximately 100,000 years ago, are considered the oldest known examples.

Beadwork

Beadwork is the art or craft of creating items with beads, whether woven with thread, strung on flexible wire, or affixed to fabric or clay. Designs can range from minimal patterns to elaborate full-surface ornamentation.

Glassworking

Most glass beads are mass-produced from molten glass pressed into molds. Plastic beads are produced similarly.

A smaller and more expensive category, including glass and lead-crystal beads, is cut into precise facets—formerly by hand but now largely by precision machinery. Fire-polished beads, a less costly alternative, are molded, ground into facets, and briefly reheated to smooth surface irregularities.

Common Types

* Square beads: Used as spacers or as the sole element of necklaces, including rosaries and beachwear jewellery.

* Seed beads: Small, uniformly shaped spherical or tubular beads, widely used in loom and off-loom bead weaving.

* Vintage beads: At least 25 years old, found in materials such as lucite, crystal, and metal.

* Czech glass beads: Produced in Jablonec nad Nisou, Czech Republic, with a tradition dating to the 14th century and noted for quality workmanship.

Surface Patterns

Glass and crystal beads can be surface-treated by etching or by applying color layers. Coatings such as Aurora Borealis (AB) create iridescent effects, while others (e.g., vitrail, moonlight, dorado, satin, star shine, heliotrope) provide alternative finishes.

Faux and Natural Alternatives

Faux beads imitate precious materials such as pearls, gemstones, metals, or ivory. Tagua nuts are used as a sustainable substitute for natural ivory.

Ethnic and Traditional Beads

Examples include Tibetan Dzi beads and Rudraksha beads (for Buddhist and Hindu malas), magatama (Japan), cinnabar beads (China), wampum (Northeastern Native American tribes), Job’s tears (seed beads used in the Southeast United States), and heishe (shell or stone beads of the Kewa Pueblo in New Mexico).

Shell Necklaces

Aboriginal Tasmanian women have produced maireener shell necklaces for at least 2,600 years. Contemporary artisans such as Palawa elder Lola Greeno help sustain this tradition despite declining shell supplies.

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Jewellery Design

Jewellery design is the art or profession of creating ornamental pieces such as rings, necklaces, and bracelets. This practice dates back at least 7,000 years, with early examples found in the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and Egypt.

Techniques and Evolution

Design concepts are traditionally hand-drawn, then converted into technical drawings or directly into wax or metal. Increasingly, designers use computer-aided design (CAD) and 3D printing to create models for casting.

Historically, 24 karat gold was favored for availability and workability. Early jewellery incorporated beads, and the discovery of gem-cutting techniques (beginning with Theophilus Presbyter’s documented work in the 11th–12th centuries) advanced the art. By the 14th century, lapidary methods enabled cabochons and cameos. Techniques such as enameling and repoussé became common for decorative and ceremonial commissions, influencing later styles including the Baroque.

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Synthetic Gemstones

Many gemstones are now laboratory-grown to meet jewelry and industrial demands. Not all stones are economically feasible to synthesize, but several are common.

Synthetic Corundum

Synthetic corundum, including ruby (red) and sapphire (other colors), was first produced by Auguste Verneuil using the flame-fusion process in 1902. Today, corundum is typically made by flame-fusion, with flux and hydrothermal growth also used.

Synthetic Beryl

Emerald, the most common synthetic beryl, can be produced via flux growth and hydrothermal growth. Other beryl colors—yellow, red, blue—are possible but rare.

Synthetic Quartz

Varieties such as citrine, rose quartz, and amethyst are synthesized for both ornamental and industrial uses. Quartz’s ability to generate an electric current under pressure makes it essential for watches, clocks, and oscillators.

Synthetic Spinel

Initially discovered accidentally, synthetic spinel can be created in virtually any color, making it useful for imitating natural gemstones. It is commonly produced via flux and hydrothermal growth.

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Formation and Occurrence

Aquamarine forms over millions of years in granite pegmatites and hydrothermal veins, processes associated with Precambrian rocks. It occurs in many countries worldwide and is widely used in jewellery and ornamental decoration.

Notable Examples

Famous aquamarines include:

The *Dom Pedro**

The *Roosevelt Aquamarine**

The *Hirsch Aquamarine**

* Queen Elizabeth II’s aquamarine tiara

* Meghan Markle’s aquamarine ring

The *Schlumberger bow brooch**

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Birthstone

A birthstone is a gemstone associated with a person’s birth period, most often by month or zodiac sign. Birthstones are typically incorporated into rings, necklaces, pendants, and other personal jewellery.

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Aquamarine

Aquamarine is a pale-blue to light-green variety of beryl with a hexagonal crystal system. It is generally transparent to translucent and is considered relatively common and accessible compared with other beryl gemstones such as emerald.